Architectural graphics are key tools for conveying design through representation on paper or on screen, and this book is the ultimate guide to mastering the skill, then applying your talent to create more effective design communication. Understand multiview, paraline, and perspective drawing Master interior sections using a variety of techniques Render tonal value, enhance depth, and convey illumination Develop professional-quality layouts for presentations Architectural graphics both inform the design process and serve as the means by which a design is interpreted and built.
Complete mastery of the tools and conventions is essential to the successful outcome of any project, and mistakes can cause confusion, time delays, increased costs, and possible catastrophe.
Architectural Graphics is the comprehensive guide to professional architectural drawing, with insight from a leading authority in the field. What is ebook? To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. Log In Sign Up. Download Free PDF. Architectural Graphics - 6th Edition Alexander Oloteo. Download PDF. A short summary of this paper.
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Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on- demand. For more information about Wiley products, visit www. PREFACE Forty years ago, the first edition of this text introduced students to the range of graphic tools, techniques, and conventions designers use to communicate architectural ideas. The prime objective behind its original formation and subsequent revisions was to provide a clear, concise, and illustrative guide to the creation and use of architectural graphics.
While retaining the clarity and visual approach of the earlier editions, this sixth edition of Architectural Graphics is unique in its use of digital media to convey and clarify the essential principles of graphic communication. Advances in computer technology have significantly altered the process of architectural drawing and design. Current graphics applications range from 2D drawing programs to 3D modelers and Building Information Modeling BIM software that aid in the design and representation of buildings, from small houses to large and complex structures.
It is therefore important to acknowledge the unique opportunities and challenges digital tools offer in the production of architectural graphics. Whether a drawing is executed by hand or developed with the aid of a computer, however, the standards and judgments governing the effective communication of design ideas in architecture remain the same.
The overall chapter organization remains the same as in the fifth edition. Chapters 1 and 2 introduce the essential tools and techniques of drawing and drafting. While digital tools can augment traditional techniques, the tactile, kinesthetic process of crafting lines on a sheet of paper with a pen or pencil remains the most sensible medium for learning the graphic language of drawing.
Chapter 3 introduces the three principal systems of pictorial representation— multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings—and analyzes in a comparative manner the unique viewpoints afforded by each system.
Chapters 4 through 6 then focus on the principles and standards governing the conventions and uses of each of the three drawing systems, concepts that apply whether an architectural graphic is created manually or digitally. The language of architectural graphics relies on the power of a composition of lines to convey the illusion of a three-dimensional construction or spatial environment on a two-dimensional surface, be it a sheet of paper or a computer screen.
While digital technology may have altered the way we input information and create perspective, paraline, and orthographic projections, a fundamental understanding of what each of the three drawing systems conveys is required of all designers. Each drawing system provides a limited view of what we are designing and representing. And an appreciation for what these viewpoints reveal—and conceal—remains indispensable in the design process.
Special thanks go to Nan-Ching Tai, who offered his invaluable expertise and assistance in preparing the examples of digital lighting. Because we design and evaluate architecture in relation to its environment, Chapter 8 extends the role of rendering to establishing context in the drawing of design proposals and indicating the scale and intended use of spaces. Chapter 9 examines the fundamental principles of graphic communication and illustrates the strategic choices available in the planning and layout of architectural presentations.
Incorporated into this discussion is the original chapter on lettering and graphic symbols, which are informative and essential elements to be considered in preparing any presentation. Drawing with a free hand holding a pen or pencil remains the most direct and intuitive means we have for recording our observations and experiences, thinking through ideas, and diagramming design concepts.
Chapter 10 therefore includes additional instruction on freehand sketching and diagramming. This terminal position reflects the importance of freehand drawing as a graphic skill and a critical tool for design thinking.
Other than the early phases of the design process, during which we initiate ideas, there is no other area of design drawing that is better suited for freehand drawing than drawing on location—from direct observation. For this reason, the section on drawing from observation has been expanded to demonstrate how the act of seeing, responding to, and sketching spatial environments invigorates seeing, enables understanding, and creates memories.
Despite substantial changes in technology over the past forty years, the fundamental premise of this text endures—drawing has the power to overcome the flatness of a two-dimensional surface and represent three-dimensional ideas in architecture in a clear, legible, and convincing manner. To unlock this power requires the ability both to execute and to read the graphic language of drawing.
Drawing is not simply a matter of technique; it is also a cognitive act that involves visual perception, judgment, and reasoning of spatial dimensions and relationships. While digital technology continues to further augment and enhance this traditional drawing toolkit, the kinesthetic act of drawing with a hand- held pencil or pen remains the most direct and versatile means of learning the language of architectural graphics.
This sleeve should be long enough to clear the edges of drafting triangles and straightedges. All three styles of pencils are capable of producing quality line drawings. As you try each type out, you will gradually develop a preference for the characteristic feel, weight, and balance of a particular instrument as you draw. Nonphoto blue leads are used for construction lines because their shade of blue tends not to be detected by photocopiers.
Plastic Leads Specially formulated plastic polymer leads are available for drawing on drafting film. The letters E, N, and P linework and handlettering. The texture and density of a drawing surface affect how hard or soft a pencil lead feels. The more tooth or roughness a surface has, the harder the lead you should use; the more dense a surface is, the softer a lead feels. As with lead holders and mechanical pencils, technical pens from different manufacturers vary in form and operation.
The traditional technical pen uses an ink-flow-regulating wire within a tubular point, the size of which determines the width of the ink line. There are nine point sizes available, from extremely fine 0. A starting pen set should include the four standard line widths— 0. Since digital tools have reduced the need for manual drafting, a variety of less expensive, low-maintenance technical pens have been developed.
Equipped with tubular tips and waterproof, pigment- based ink, these pens are suitable for writing, freehand drawing, as well as drafting with straightedges. They are available in point sizes that range from 0. Some are refillable and have replaceable nibs. While not suitable for drafting, fountain pens are ideal for writing and freehand sketching because they offer ease in drawing fluid, incisive, often expressive lines with little or no pressure. Fountain pen nibs come in extra-fine, fine, medium, and broad sizes; flat tipped nibs are also available for italic and oblique strokes.
Some nibs are flexible enough that they respond to individual stroke direction and pressure. Other Drawing Pens Gel pens use a thick, opaque ink consisting of pigment suspended in a water-based gel while rollerball pens use a water-based liquid ink. Both offer similar qualities to fountain pens—they are capable of a consistent ink flow and laying down lines with less pressure than that required by regular ballpoint pens. Digital Stylus The digital equivalent of the pen and pencil is the stylus.
Used with a digitizing tablet and appropriate software, it replaces the mouse and enables the user to draw in a freehand manner. Some models and software are able to detect and respond to the amount of hand pressure to mimic more realistically the effects of traditional media.
This head slides along the 42", and 48" lengths. Metal T-squares are available for this purpose. Some models are available with metal cutting edges. The 42" or 48" move across a drawing board only in a parallel length is recommended.
Parallel rules are more expensive and less portable than T-squares but enable one to draft with greater speed and accuracy. See page Fluorescent orange acrylic triangles are also available for greater visibility on the drafting surface. Some triangles have raised edges for inking with technical pens. Adjustable Triangles Adjustable triangles have a movable leg that is held in place with a thumbscrew and a scale for measuring angles. These instruments are useful for drawing such inclined lines as the slope of a stair or the pitch of a roof.
Using too hard a grade of lead can therefore result in too light of a line. A softer grade of lead, sharpened to a chisel point, will usually produce the sharpest line without undue pressure. A chisel point dulls easily, however, and must be sharpened often.
Metric sizes are also available. Digital Guides Drawing programs typically have commands to constrain the movement of points and lines to a precise horizontal, vertical, or diagonal direction. Grids and guidelines, along with snap-to commands, further aid the precise drawing of lines and shapes. Whether a template is physical or digital, its purpose remains the same—to save time when drawing repetitive elements. Always use the softest eraser compatible with the medium and the drawing surface.
Avoid using abrasive ink erasers. Erasing Shields Erasing shields have cutouts of various shapes and sizes to confine the area of a drawing to be erased. Compact, battery-operated an electric eraser.
Ones that have square- models are especially handy. If used too heavily, the powder can cause lines to skip, so use sparingly, if at all. The term also applies to any of various instruments having one or more sets of precisely graduated and numbered spaces for measuring, reading, or transferring dimensions and distances in a drawing.
Metric Scales Metric scales consist of one or more sets of graduated and numbered spaces, each set establishing a proportion of one millimeter to a specified number of millimeters. Digital Scale In traditional drawing, we think in real-world units and use scale to reduce the drawing to a manageable size.
In digital drawing, we actually input information in real-world units, but we should be careful to distinguish between the size of the image viewed on a monitor, which can be reduced and enlarged independent of its real- world size, and the scale of the output from a printer or plotter.
Tracing Papers Tracing papers are characterized by transparency, whiteness, and tooth or surface grain. Fine-tooth papers are generally better for inking, whereas medium-tooth papers are more suitable for pencil work.
Lightweight board. Do not use normal trace is used for freehand sketching, overlays, masking tape, which can and studies. Use only soft leads or markers; hard tear the paper surface upon leads can tear the thin paper easily. Vellum Vellum is available in rolls, pads, and individual sheets in 16, 20, and 24 lb.
While medium-weight 16 lb. Vellum is available with nonreproducible blue square grids, subdivided into 4 x 4, 5 x 5, 8 x 8, or 10 x 10 parts to the inch. Drafting Film Drafting film is a clear polyester film that is durable, dimensionally stable, and translucent enough for clear reproductions and overlay work.
The film is 3 to 4 mil thick and available in rolls or cut sheets. One or both sides may have a nonglare, matte finish suitable for pencil or ink. Only compatible leads, inks, and erasers should be used. Ink lines are removable with erasing fluid or a vinyl eraser saturated with erasing fluid. And once entered and stored, digital information is easier to copy, transfer, and share than traditional drawings. Coldpress boards have a degree of texture for pencil work; hotpress boards have relatively smooth surfaces more suitable for inking.
Some brands of illustration boards have white facing papers bonded to a middle core of white stock. Cut edges are therefore consistently white in color, making them useful for constructing architectural models. Drawing a line with a pen or pencil incorporates a kinesthetic sense of direction and length, and is a tactile act that feeds back into the mind in a way that reinforces the structure of the resulting graphic image.
This chapter describes techniques and pointers for drafting lines, constructing geometric figures and shapes, and performing such operations as subdividing a given length into a number of equal parts.
Understanding these procedures will result in more efficient and systematic representation of architectural and engineering structures; many are often useful in freehand sketching as well. Interspersed are digital equivalents of hand-drafting techniques to illustrate the principles that underlie all drawing, whether done by hand or on the computer. Controlling the pen or pencil is the key to producing good line quality and proper line weights. Ending point: 17, 7, 0 Drawing with a pen or pencil is not only a visual experience, it is also a tactile one in which you should feel the surface of the paper, film, or illustration board as you draw.
Further, it is a kinesthetic act wherein the movements of the hand and eye correspond to the line produced. Digital Drawing Starting point: 3, —2, 0 There is a similar, but less direct, correspondence when drawing with a mouse or a stylus on a digitizing tablet, but no such parallel spatial action occurs when entering the coordinates of a line on a keyboard.
It is essential that, as you draw, you understand what each line represents, whether it be an edge of a plane, a change in material, or simply a construction guideline. The relative weight of a solid line varies according to its role in conveying depth.
Line weight is therefore primarily a matter of width or thickness. While inked lines are uniformly black and vary only in width, pencil lines can vary in both width and tonal value, depending on the hardness of the lead used, the tooth and density of the surface, and the speed and pressure with which you draw.
Strive to make all pencil lines uniformly dense and vary their width to achieve differing line weights. Digital Line Weights A distinct advantage to drawing or drafting by hand is that the results are immediately discernible to the eye.
In either case, what one views on a monitor may not match the output from a printer or plotter. One should therefore always run a test print or plot to ascertain whether or not the resulting range and contrasts in the line weights of a drawing are appropriate. Note, however, that if changes in line weight are necessary, it is often much easier to make them in a digital drawing than in a hand drawing.
Digital Line Quality What one sees on a computer monitor does not necessarily indicate what one will get from a printer or plotter. Judgment of line quality in a digital drawing must be deferred until one sees the actual output from a printer or plotter. If you use a sandpaper pad to sharpen leads, slant the lead at a low angle to achieve the correct taper.
Do not push the pen or pencil as if it were a cue stick. Doing so dirties the equipment and causes blotting of ink lines. This will help prevent a line from feathering or fading out along its length. Applying slight additional pressure at the beginning and ending of a stroke will help accomplish this. Achieving the desired line weight, however, may require drawing a series of closely spaced lines. The transparency of the tracing paper helps maintain a visual connection to the context of the drawing.
The successive repetition of short lengths or measurements can often result in an accumulation of minute errors. It is therefore advantageous to be able to subdivide an overall length into a number of equal parts. Being able to subdivide any A B given length in this manner is useful for constructing the risers and runs of a stairway, as well as for establishing the coursing of such construction as a tiled floor or masonry wall.
Using an angle that is too acute would make it difficult to ascertain the exact point of intersection. We can lay out and develop work on screen and either print it out or save the file for future editing. Questions of scale and placement can be deferred since these aspects can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final graphic image.
In hand drafting, the result of the drawing process is seen immediately but adjustments to scale and placement are difficult to make. Digital Multiplication The ability to create, move, and place copies of a line or shape is easily accomplished in digital drawing programs. A B Digital Subdivision We can subdivide any line segment in a manner similar to the process we use in hand drafting.
We can also distribute lines and shapes evenly between the two endpoints of the line segment. Whether subdividing by hand drafting or in a digital drawing program, the process of working from the general to the specific, from the larger whole to the smaller parts, remains the same. For other angles, use a protractor or an adjustable triangle.
The diagrams to the left illustrate how to construct three common geometric shapes—an equilateral triangle, a square, and a pentagon. Digital shapes have two attributes: stroke and fill. Digital Transformations Once created, a digital shape can be transformed by scaling, rotating, reflecting, or shearing.
Any vector-based shape is easy to modify because the mathematical description of its underlying geometry is embedded in the software routine.
Because vector images are resolution independent, they can be output to the highest quality at any scale. Any of these transformations can be repeated a number of times until the desired image is achieved. Three distinct types of drawing systems have evolved over time to accomplish this mission: multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings.
This chapter describes these three major drawing systems, the principles behind their construction, and their resulting pictorial characteristics. The discussion does not include media that involve motion and animation, made possible by computer technology.
Nevertheless, these visual systems of representation constitute a formal graphic language that is governed by a consistent set of principles. Understanding these principles and related conventions is the key to creating and reading architectural drawings. These projectors are also called sight lines in perspective projection. Three distinct projection systems result from the relationship of the projectors to each other as well as to the picture plane. Once the information for a three-dimensional construction or environment has been entered into a computer, 3D CAD and modeling software can theoretically present the information in any of these projection systems.
We categorize these pictorial systems into multiview drawings, paraline drawings, and perspective drawings. These pictorial views are available in most 3D CAD and modeling programs. Parallel projectors therefore represent these major faces in their true size, shape, and proportions.
This is the greatest advantage of using orthographic projections—to be able to describe facets of a form parallel to the picture plane without foreshortening. Ambiguity of depth is inherent in any orthographic projection, as the third dimension is flattened onto the picture plane. Only by looking at related orthographic projections can this information be discerned.
In architectural drawing, top views are called plans. In architectural drawing, front and side views are called elevations.
The top or plan view revolves upward to a position directly above and vertically aligned with the front or elevation view, while the side view revolves to align horizontally with the front view.
The result is a coherent set of related orthographic views. Only by looking at related orthographic projections are we able to understand the three-dimensional form of each object. We should therefore study and represent three- dimensional forms and constructions through a series of related orthographic projections. Properly speaking, any orthographic projection is a paraline drawing. Conversely, nonaxial lines are never scalable.
Strictly speaking, axonometric projection is a form of orthographic projection in which the projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the picture plane. The difference between orthographic multiview drawings and an axonometric single-view drawing is simply the orientation of the object to the picture plane.
A principal face or set of planes of the subject is usually oriented parallel to the picture plane and is therefore represented in accurate size, shape, and proportion. In architectural drawing, there are two principal types of oblique drawings: plan obliques and elevation obliques. These horizontal planes are therefore shown in true size and shape, while the two principal sets of vertical planes are foreshortened. This set is therefore shown in true size and shape, while the other vertical set and the principal horizontal set of planes are both foreshortened.
Unlike the parallel projectors in orthographic and oblique projections, the projectors or sightlines in perspective projection emanate from this station point. Picture plane PP Pictorial Characteristics of Perspective Drawings The radiating sight lines in perspective give rise to the two principal pictorial characteristics of perspective drawings: convergence of parallel lines and reduced size with distance. Objective Views A well-drawn perspective excels in conveying the experience of being in a three-dimensional spatial environment.
We can view the drawings from various angles and be comfortable in reading the objective information. Our eyes can roam over the expanse of a plan or paraline drawing and be able to correctly interpret the graphic information. There is an ongoing question regarding how to use these capabilities to simulate more effectively the way we experience space. At these scales, the degree of convergence of parallel lines is so slight that a paraline view is usually a better and more efficient choice.
No one drawing can ever reveal everything about its subject. The choice of a particular drawing system influences how we view the resulting graphic image, establishes which design issues are made visible for evaluation and scrutiny, and directs how we are inclined to think about the subject of the drawing. In selecting one drawing system over another, therefore, we make conscious as well as unconscious choices about what to reveal as well as what to conceal.
These advantages arise from the ability to undo an action or series of operations, or to save one version of a drawing while working on a copy and return to the saved version if necessary. Even digital printers and plotters have paper size limitations.
The scale of a drawing determines how much detail can be included in the graphic image. Conversely, how much detail is desirable determines how large or small the scale of a drawing should be. Vector drawings, in particular, can be reduced or enlarged without degrading the quality of the image. In doing so, we should be careful to distinguish between the size of the image viewed on a monitor, which can be reduced and enlarged independent of its real-world size, and the scale of the output from a printer or plotter.
Managing and organizing the amount of data in a digital drawing is also important because large-scale drawings call for more detail while small-scale drawings require less. Printing or plotting a small-scale drawing that contains too much data can result in an image that is too dense to read.
Design drawings, therefore, focus on illustrating and clarifying the essential solid-void nature of forms and spaces, scale and proportional Design drawing relationships, and other sensible qualities of space.
For these reasons, design drawings convey information primarily through graphic means. Construction drawings, on the other hand, are intended to inform the builder or fabricator about the implementation and realization of a design. These contract drawings, which constitute part of a legal document, often rely on abstract rather than pictorial conventions and include dimensions, notes, and specifications.
Construction drawing The prevailing method for producing construction drawings is through the use of CAD and BIM technologies, especially during the design development and construction documentation phases of the design process. Building information modeling BIM is a digital technology that builds on CAD capabilities and uses a database of project information and three-dimensional, dynamic modeling software to facilitate the exchange and interoperability of building information.
The ability to create, manage, and coordinate such aspects as building geometry, spatial relationships, lighting analysis, geographic information, and quantities and properties of building materials and components is a powerful design tool. BIM technologies can be used for the life-cycle of a building from design to visualization studies; production of contract documents; simulation and analysis of building performance; scheduling, coordination, and optimization of the construction process; pricing and budgeting for equipment, labor, and materials; and management of facilities operation.
Perhaps the most critical of these is the insufficient contrast in line weights to distinguish between what is cut in plan and section drawings. Here are examples of typical CAD drawings overlaid with contrasting line weights and values to illustrate how they can convey a sense of depth and improve the readability of architectural drawings. Floor Plan For more on defining plan cuts, see pages 54— Each is an orthographic projection of a particular aspect of a three-dimensional object or construction.
These orthographic views are abstract in the sense that they do not match optical reality. They are a conceptual form of representation based on what we know about something rather than on the way it might appear to the eye.
In architectural design, multiview drawings establish two-dimensional fields on which we are able to study formal and spatial patterns as well as scalar and proportional relationships in a composition. The ability to regulate size, placement, and configuration also makes multiview drawings useful in communicating the graphic information necessary for the description, fabrication, and construction of a design.
P LA N S If we enclose an object within a transparent picture-plane box, we can name the principal picture planes and the images projected orthographically onto these planes. Each orthographic view represents a different orientation and a particular vantage point from which to view the Pla object.
Each plays a specific role in the development and n communication of a design. They represent a view looking down on an object, building, or scene from above. Note especially that plans are unable to provide precise information about the vertical dimensions of forms and spaces. Conversely, all planes that are curved or oblique to the horizontal plane of projection are foreshortened.
The floor plan is an orthographic projection of the portion that remains. The normal convention is to orient floor plans with north facing up or upward on the drawing th d Nor sheet. Although this sequence can vary, depending on the nature of the building design being drawn, always try to proceed from the most continuous, regulating elements to those that are contained or defined by the elements.
It is therefore important to emphasize in a graphic way what is cut in a floor plan, and to differentiate the cut material from what we can see through space below the plane of the cut. It is drawn with a single line weight. As a profile line, this cut line must be continuous; it can never intersect another cut line or terminate at a line of lesser weight.
The farther away a horizontal surface is from the plane of the plan cut, the lighter the line weight. These lines do not signify any change in form; they simply represent the visual pattern or texture of the floor plane and other horizontal surfaces.
Small- scale drawings use a tighter range of line weights than do large-scale drawings. This is especially important in large-scale plans, when large areas of black can carry too much visual weight or create too stark a contrast.
As with hand drafting, we should use a range of contrasting line weights to distinguish the profile of the elements that are cut in plan from the elements seen below the plane of the cut. At a glance, it is difficult to discern what is cut in plan. When using drawing or CAD software to create floor plans, avoid using colors, textures, and patterns to make the drawings more pictorial than they need to be. The primary emphasis should remain on articulating the plan cut and the relative depth of elements below the plane of the cut.
This can be useful when contrasting a floor plan with its context. For this information, we must rely on elevations. What a floor plan does show, however, are the location and width of door openings, and to a limited degree, the door jambs and type of door operation—whether a door swings, slides, or folds open.
Be sure that the door width matches that of the door opening. A floor plan does disclose the location and beyond plane of cut width of window openings, and to a limited degree the presence of window jambs and mullions. They should therefore be drawn with a lighter line weight than walls, window mullions, and other cut elements. Dashed lines may also disclose the hidden lines of features concealed from view by other opaque elements.
Digital Scale In computer graphics, a small-scale drawing that contains too much data can result in an unnecessarily large file as well as a printed or plotted image that is too dense to read.
The larger scale enables information about floor finishes, fittings, and trim work to be included. Conversely, the larger the scale of a floor plan, the more detail we should include. This attention to detail is most critical when drawing the thicknesses of construction materials and assemblies that are cut in a plan view.
A general knowledge of how buildings are constructed is therefore extremely beneficial when executing large-scale floor plans. For this reason, we usually call this view a reflected ceiling plan. As with floor plans, it is important to profile all vertical elements that rise to meet the Flo ceiling. On a site plan, however, it is difficult to describe the vertical aspect of an undulating ground surface.
Contour lines are the graphic convention we use to convey this information. For example, a 15' contour line represents every point that is 15' above a given datum or reference point. The trajectory of each contour line indicates the shape of the land formation at that elevation. The larger the area and the steeper the slopes, the greater the interval between contours. We can discern the topographical nature of a site by reading this horizontal spacing. They may coincide in a plan view only when they cut across a vertical surface.
One method produces a stepped model that preserves the visibility of contour lines and intervals. Another creates a warped plane or mesh for shading, consisting of polygonal, usually triangular, faces. At these larger scales, a site plan will usually include the first- or ground-floor plan of the building in order to illustrate relationships between interior and outdoor spaces.
Whenever possible, north should be oriented up or upward on the drawing sheet or board. This approach is especially appropriate when the way in which the roofing material of the building is indicated will establish a tonal value and texture against which the surrounding context must contrast. This technique is necessary when rendering shadows cast by the form of the building, or when landscaping elements impart a tonal value to the surrounding context.
It opens up the object to reveal its internal material, composition, or assembly. In theory, the plane of the section cut may have any orientation. But in order to distinguish a section drawing from a floor plan—the other type of drawing that involves a slice—we usually assume the plane of the cut for a section is vertical.
As with other orthographic projections, all planes parallel to the picture plane maintain their true size, shape, and proportions. He is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Washington. Ching was born and raised in Saint Croix, U. Virgin Islands. He received his B. After several years of practice, in he joined the faculty at Ohio University to teach drawing.
To support his lectures in architectural graphics, Ching hand-drew and hand-lettered his lecture notes. These notes were eventually shown to the publisher, Van Nostrand Reinhold, and were published, in , in an edited version as Architectural Graphics , a book now in its fourth edition. Read Architectural Graphics by Frank Ching with a free trial. Read unlimited. Architectural Graphics focuses on the techniques, methodologies, and graphic tools used in conveying architectural ideas.
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