Building the first console application 2. Basic Data Types 3. Enumeration 4. Variables and Operators 5. Flow Control and conditional statements 6. Arrays Chapter 4: Class and Object 1.
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Other Controls Chapter 7: Database Access 1. Fundamentals of Database connectivity 2. Connections in. Net 3. Accessing data 4. Inserting Records 5. Updating Records 6. Deleting Records 7. Connecting Controls to Data 8. Streams — Reading and Writing to files 3. This book is the fastest way to get comfortable with C, one incredibly clear and easy step at a time. C programming has neverbeen this simple!
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What is Debugging in ASP. What is Tracing in ASP. Page Level Tracing 4. NET Unhandled Exception 6. How to Publish ASP. You see that, in line 9, the numeric value is assigned to the integer variable ch. Then, in line 10, the character entered by the user is displayed on the screen with the help of printf. The C language provides another function, getchar , to perform a similar operation to getc. More precisely, the getchar function is equivalent to getc stdin.
Here void indicates that no argument is needed for calling the function. The program in Listing 5. The statement in line 6 declares two integers, ch1 and ch2.
Line 8 displays a message asking the user to enter two characters together. Then, the getc and getchar functions are called in lines 9 and 10, respectively, to read in two characters entered by the user. Note that in line 10, nothing is passed to the getchar function. This is because, as mentioned earlier, getchar has its default file stream—stdin. You can replace the getchar function in line 10 with getc stdin , because getc stdin is equivalent to getchar.
Besides getc and getchar for reading, the C language also provides two functions, putc and putchar , for writing. The following two sections introduce these functions. The putc function writes a character to the specified file stream, which, in our case, is the standard output pointing to your screen.
If successful, putc returns the character written; otherwise, it returns EOF. The integer variable, ch, declared in line 6, is assigned the numeric value of 65 in line 8. You may remember that 65 is the numeric value of character A. Then, the putc function in line 10 puts character A on the screen.
Note that the first argument to the putc function is the integer variable ch that contains 65, and the second argument is the standard output file stream, stdout. Like putc , putchar can also be used to put a character on the screen. The only difference between the two functions is that putchar needs only one argument to contain the character. You don't need to specify the file stream, because the standard output stdout is the default file stream to putchar.
Here int c is the argument that contains the numeric value of a character. The function returns EOF if an error occurs; otherwise, it returns the character that has been written. There is no variable declared in the program. As you might have figured out, 65, 66, and 67 are, respectively, the numeric values of characters A, B, and C. Therefore, respectively, lines 6 and 7 put character A on the screen and cause the computer to start at the beginning of the next line.
Likewise, line 8 puts B on the screen, and line 9 starts a new line. Then, line 10 puts C on the screen, and line 11 starts another new line. Accordingly, A, B, and C, are put at the beginnings of three consecutive lines, as shown in the output section.
The printf function is the first C library function you used in this book to print out messages on the screen. The number of expressions is determined by the number of the format specifiers inside the first argument.
The function returns the numbers of expressions formatted if it succeeds. It returns a negative value if an error occurs. For the time being, consider the first argument to the printf function as a series of characters surrounded with double quotes with some format specifiers inside.
Figure 5. Note that the format specifiers and the expressions are matched in order from left to right. Please remember that you should use exactly the same number of expressions as the number of format specifiers within the format string.
Several others are explained later in this book. The difference between a decimal number and a hexadecimal number is that the hexadecimal is a base numbering system. A hexadecimal number can be represented by four bits. Hexadecimal is often written as hex for short. The hexadecimal numbers 0 through 9 use the same numeric symbols founded in the decimal numbers 0 through 9. Similarly, in lowercase, a, b, c, d, e, and f are used to represent these hex numbers.
In fact, the program in Listing 5. The printf function in line 6 prints out a headline that contains three fields: Hex uppercase , Hex lowercase , and Decimal. Sixteen printf functions are called to accomplish the job. Each of the printf functions has a format string as the first argument followed by three integers as three expressions.
In reality, nobody would write a program like the one in Listing 5. Instead, a loop can be used to call the printf function repeatedly. The integer is called the minimum field width specifier because it specifies the minimum field width and ensures that the output reaches the minimum width. Without using any minimum field width specifiers, lines 10 and 11 print out the two integers by calling the printf function. You can see in the output section that the output made by the statements in line 10 is 12, which takes two character spaces, while the output, , from line 11 takes five character spaces.
The output from line 12 therefore takes five character spaces, with three blank spaces plus two character spaces of See the third output line in the output section.
Therefore, you see the output made by the execution of the statement in line 13 is. This means that when the minimum field width is shorter than the width of the output, the latter is taken, and the output is still printed in full.
As you might have noticed in the previous section, all output is right-justified. In other words, by default, all output is placed on the right edge of the field, as long as the field width is longer than the width of the output. You can change this and force output to be left-justified. To do so, you need to prefix the minimum field specifier with the minus sign -.
TYPE Listing 5. Left- or right-justified output. You can put a period. The combination of the period. The precision specifier is another important specifier you can use to determine the number of decimal places for floating-point numbers, or to specify the maximum field width or length for integers or strings.
Strings in C are introduced in Hour 13, "Manipulating Strings. Remember, the default number of decimal places is 6. Lines 9 and 10 assign and Therefore, you see that five zeros are padded prior to the integer in the second line of the output. Note here that the left-justification is also specified by the minus sign - in the floating-point format specifier. The floating-point number Therefore, Q What are stdin, stdout, and stderr?
A In C, a file is treated as a series of bytes that is called file stream. A Hexadecimal, or hex for short, is a base numerical system.
A Because the getchar function reads from the file stream stdin by default, getc stdin and getchar are equivalent. Here the first numeric value of 12 is going to be printed out in integer format, while the second 12 in the expression section will be displayed in the hex format. Generally speaking, the number of format specifiers in the format section should match the number of expressions in the expression section.
Can you align your output at the left edge, rather than the right edge, of the output field? What is the difference between putc and putchar? What does getchar return? Write a program to put the characters B, y, and e together on the screen. Display the two numbers and Given three integers—15, , and —write a program that prints the integers on the screen in the hex format. Write a program that uses getchar and putchar to read in a character entered by the user and write the character to the screen.
If you compile the following C program, what warning or error messages will you get? You can think of operators as verbs in C that let you manipulate data. In this hour, you'll learn about more operators, such as. Before jumping into the arithmetic assignment operators, you first need to learn more about the assignment operator.
Here the statement causes the value of the right-hand-operand to be assigned or written to the memory location of the left-hand-operand. Additionally, the assignment statement itself returns the same value that is assigned to the left- hand-operand. After the execution of the statement, both a and b contain the value of 5. Consider this example: Given two integer variables, x and y, how do you assign the sum of x and y to another integer variable, z? As you can see, it's pretty simple.
Now, consider the same example again. This time, instead of assigning the result to the third variable, z, let's write the sum back to the integer variable, x:. TYPE Listing 6. Using arithmetic assignment operators. On my machine, this executable file is named as 06L Line 11 then prints out the initial values assigned to x, y, and z.
The statement in line 13 uses the one addition operator and one assignment operator to add the values contained by x and y, and then assigns the result to x. Line 14 displays the result on the screen. Similarly, lines 17 and 18 do the same addition and display the result again, after the variable x is reset in line Also, line 16 in Listing 6. The value of x is reset again in line The printf function in line 22 displays the result, 13, on the screen.
The two results are actually the same that is, 40 , because the two computations in lines 25 and 29 are equivalent. If you want to change the sign of a numeric number, you can put the minus operator - right before the number. For instance, given an integer of 7, you can get its negation by changing the sign of the integer like this: Here, - is the minus operator.
Precisely, - is called the unary minus operator in C. This is because the operator takes only one operand. The type of the operand can be any integer or floating-point number. You can apply the unary minus operator to an integer or a floating-point variable as well.
For instance, the following statement:. Here, in both statements, the first - symbol is used as the subtraction operator, while the second - symbol is the unary minus operator. The increment and decrement operators are very handy to use when you want to add or subtract 1 from a variable. The decrement operator is Actually, there are two versions of the increment operator and of the decrement operator. Likewise, in the --x; statement, the pre-decrement operator first subtracts 1 from x and then gets the value of x.
Similarly, in x--, the decrement operator is called the post-decrement operator. In other words, the post-increment operator makes a copy of the original value of x and stores the copy in a temporary location. Then, x is increased by 1. The post-decrement operator has a similar story. This operator returns a copy of the original value of a variable, rather than the current value of the variable which has been decreased by 1.
The program in Listing 6. The printf function in line 9 displays the values contained by the four integer variables. Then, the statement in line 11 is executed and the result of the pre-increment of w is given to the integer variable result.
In line 12, the value of result, which is 2, is printed out to the screen. Lines 13 and 14 get the post-increment of x and print out the result. As you know, the result is obtained before the value of x is increased. The pre-decrement operator in line 15 causes the value of y to be reduced by 1 before the value is assigned to the integer variable result. Therefore, you see 0 as the result of --y shown on the screen.
In line 17, however, the post-decrement operator has no effect on the assignment because the original value of z is given to the integer variable result before z is decreased by 1. Line 18 thus prints out 1, which is the original value of z. Greater Than or Less Than? There are six types of relationships between two expressions: equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than, greater than or equal to, and less than or equal to. Accordingly, the C language provides six relational operators:.
All the relational operators have lower precedence than the arithmetic operators. Therefore, all arithmetic operations are carried out before any comparison is made. You should use parentheses to enclose operations of operators that have to be performed first.
Another important thing is that all relational expressions produce a result of either 0 or 1. In other words, a relational expression returns 1 if the specified relationship holds. Otherwise, 0 is returned. Line 12 prints out the values assigned to the variables. Because the value of x is 7 and the value of y is 25, y is greater than x. The statement in line 17 displays 0, which is the result of the relational expression x! Because of the truncation, or rounding up, some relational expressions, which are algebraically true, may return 0 instead of 1.
For example, look at the following relational expression:. Another example is 1. This is a number with an infinite number of decimal places. But the computer can only hold a limited number of decimal places. Therefore, the expression. Playing with the Cast Operator. In C, you can convert one data type to a different one by prefixing the cast operator to the operand.
Here data-type specifies the data type you want to convert to. You have to include the parentheses and to make up a cast operator. Line 10 then displays the values contained by the integer variables x and y.
Because the fractional part is truncated, the result of the integer division is 1. However, in line 12, the cast operator float converts the value of x to a floating-point value. That's why you see the floating- point number 1. The value of the right-side operand is assigned to the operand on the left side.
You have learned that, for example, in --x, the -- operator is the pre-decrement operator, while in x--, -- is called the post-decrement operator. Q What is the difference between the pre-increment operator and the post-increment operator? A The pre-increment operator increases the operand's value by 1 first, and then returns the modified value. On the other hand, the post-increment operator stores a copy of the operand value in a temporary location and then increases the operand value by 1.
However, the copy of the unmodified operand value is returned in the expression. A No, they are not the same, although the two operators share the same symbol. The unary minus operator is used to change the sign of a value. In other words, the unary minus operator returns the negation of the value.
The subtraction operator is an arithmetic operator that performs subtraction between its two operands. Q Which one has a higher precedence, a relational operator or an arithmetic operator?
A An arithmetic operator has a higher precedence than a relational operator. A A relational expression returns either 0 or 1. If the relationship indicated by a relational operator in an expression is true, the expression returns 1; otherwise, the expression returns 0. Write a program that initializes the integer variable x with 1 and outputs results with the following two statements:.
Rewrite the program you wrote in exercise 3. This time, include the following two statements:. What do you get after running the executable of the program? Can you explain why you get such a result?
The following program is supposed to compare the two variables, x and y, for equality. What's wrong with the program? Hint: Run the program to see what it prints out. In this lesson you'll learn a very important feature of the C language—looping. Looping, also called iteration, is used in programming to perform the same set of statements over and over until certain specified conditions are met.
You see from this example that the for statement uses three expressions expression1, expression2, and expression3 that are separated by semicolons.
All the statements and the braces form a statement block that is treated as a single statement. You can place the beginning brace on a separate line beneath the for keyword. The for statement first evaluates expression1, which usually initializes one or more variables. In other words, expression1 is only evaluated once when the for statement is first encountered.
The second expression, expression2, is the conditional part that is evaluated right after the evaluation of expression1 and then is evaluated after each successful looping by the for statement. If expression2 returns a nonzero value, the statements within the braces are executed. Usually, the nonzero value is 1. If expression2 returns 0, the looping is stopped and the execution of the for statement is finished.
The third expression in the for statement, expression3, is not evaluated when the for statement is first encountered. However, expression3 is evaluated after each looping and before the statement goes back to test expression2 again.
Back then, conversions made for each number had to be written in a separate statement. Now, with the for statement, we can rewrite the program in Listing 5. Listing 7. As you know, line 2 includes the header file stdio. Inside the body of the main function, the statement in line 6 declares an integer variable, i. Line 8 displays the headline of the output on the screen.
As mentioned earlier, the second expression is evaluated by the for statement each time after a successful looping. If the value of i is less than 16, which means the relational expression remains true, the for statement will start another loop. Otherwise, it will stop looping and exit.
This expression is evaluated and the integer variable i is increased by 1 each time after the statement inside the body of the for statement is executed. There is only one statement inside the for statement body, as you can see in line Here the decimal value is provided by the integer variable i.
As explained, i contains the initial value of 0 right before and during the first looping. The last value provided by i is Therefore, the looping is stopped and the execution of the for statement is completed. Then, the statement in line 12 returns 0 to indicate a normal termination of the program, and finally, the main function ends and returns the control back to the operating system.
As you see, with the for statement, you can write a very concise program. In fact, the program in Listing 7. Actually, you can make the program in Listing 7. As you may notice, the for statement does not end with a semicolon.
The following for statement contains a single statement:. In the C language, there is a special statement called the null statement. A null statement contains nothing but a semicolon. In other words, a null statement is a statement with no expression. In other words, you can rewrite it as. Because the null statement has no expression, the for statement actually does nothing but loop.
You'll see some examples of using the null statement with the for statement later in the book. For example, suppose you intended to write a for loop like this:. See exercise 1 in this lesson for an example. The C language allows you to put more expressions into the three expression fields in the for statement. Expressions in a single expression field are separated by commas.
Here, in the first expression field, the two integer variables, i and j, are initialized, respectively, with 0 and 10 when the for statement is first encountered. If one of the relational expressions returns 0, the looping is stopped. Now, let's look at a real program. In line 8, i is initialized with 0 and j is set to 8 in the first expression field of the for statement. Each time, after the statement controlled by for in line 8 is executed, the third expression field is evaluated, and i is increased by 1 while j is reduced by 1.
The statement in line 9 displays the addition of i and j on the screen during the looping, which outputs eight results during the looping by adding the values of the two variables, i and j. Adding multiple expressions into the for statement is a very convenient way to manipulate more than one variable in a loop. To learn more about using multiple expressions in a for loop, look at the example in Listing 7.
The following output is displayed on the screen after the executable 07L These two assignment expressions initialize the i and j integer variables, respectively. Because i starts at 0 and is incremented by 1 after each loop, there are a total of eight loops that will be performed by the for statement. The printf function in line 9 displays the subtraction of the two integer variables, j and i, within the for loop.
Note that in this for statement, there are no expressions in the three expression fields. The statements inside the statement block will be executed over and over without stopping. You use the infinite loop if you don't know the exact number of loops you need. However, you have to set up some other conditions with the loop to test and determine whether and when you want to break the infinite loop. The program in Listing 7.
The for loop in the program keeps looping until the user enters the character x. Finally, I enter x to exit from the infinite for loop. Note that in the following copy from the screen, the characters that I entered are in bold. In line 9, the integer variable c is initialized with the numeric value of the space character. Then, a condition is evaluated in the second expression field of the for statement like this: c!
If the condition is met, the two statements in lines 10 and 11 will be executed over and over. The looping can last forever until the user enters the character x. Then, the statement in line 13 prints out a good-bye message right after the looping is terminated.
The while statement is also used for looping. Unlike the situation with the for statement, there is only one expression field in the while statement. Here expression is the field of the expression in the while statement. The expression is evaluated first. If the expression returns a nonzero value normally 1 , the looping continues; that is, the statements inside the statement block are executed.
After the execution, the expression is evaluated again. The statements are then executed one more time if the expression still returns nonzero value. The process is repeated over and over until the expression returns 0. Of course, if there is only one statement in the statement block, the braces can be discarded.
Now, let's look at an example of using the while statement. The following is a copy from the screen:. The char variable c is initialized with a space character in line 8. Unlike the for statement in Listing 7. In line 10, the relational expression c! If the expression returns 1, which means the relation still holds, the statements in lines 11 and 12 are executed. The looping continues as long as the expression returns 1.
If, however, the user enters the character x, which makes the relational expression return 0, the looping stops. Because the expression always returns 1, the statements inside the statement block will be executed over and over— that is, the while loop will continue forever.
Of course, you can set certain conditions inside the while loop to break the infinite loop as soon as the conditions are met. The C language provides some statements, such as if and break statements, that you can use to set conditions and break the infinite while loop if needed.
Details on the if and break statements are covered in Hour 10, "Getting Controls. You may note that in the for and while statements, the expressions are set at the top of the loop. However, in this section, you're going to see another statement used for looping, do-while, which puts the expressions at the bottom of the loop. In this way, the statements controlled by the do-while statement are executed at least once before the expression is tested.
Note that statements in a for or while loop are not executed at all if the condition expression does not hold in the for or while statement. Here expression is the field for the expression that is evaluated in order to determine whether the statements inside the statement block are to be executed one more time.
If the expression returns a nonzero value, the do-while loop continues; otherwise, the looping stops. Note that the do-while statement ends with a semicolon, which is an important distinction from the if and while statements.
The numeric value of B is The numeric value of C is The numeric value of D is The numeric value of E is The numeric value of F is The numeric value of G is The integer variable is declared in line 6. When the loop first starts, the two statements in lines 10 and 11 are executed before the expression is evaluated. Because the integer variable i contains the initial value of 65, the printf function in line 10 displays the numeric value as well as the corresponding character A on the screen.
After the integer variable i is increased by 1 in line 11, the program control reaches the bottom of the do-while loop. If the relationship in the expression still holds, the program control jumps up to the top of the do-while loop, and then the process is repeated. When the expression returns 0 after i is increased to 72, the do-while loop is terminated immediately. You can put a loop inside another one to make nested loops. The computer will run the inner loop first before it resumes the looping for the outer loop.
Iteration 1 of the inner loop. Iteration 2 of the inner loop. Iteration 3 of the inner loop. Iteration 4 of the inner loop. The end of iteration 1 of the outer loop.
The start of iteration 2 of the outer loop. The end of iteration 2 of the outer loop. The start of iteration 3 of the outer loop. The end of iteration 3 of the outer loop. The outer for loop starts in line 8 and ends in line 13, while the inner for loop starts in line 10 and ends in line The inner loop controls one statement that prints out the iteration number according to the numeric value of the integer variable j.
As you see in line 10, j is initialized with 1, and is increased by 1 after each looping that is, iteration. The execution of the inner loop stops when the value of j is greater than 4. Besides the inner loop, the outer loop has two statements in lines 9 and 12, respectively.
The printf function in line 9 displays a message showing the beginning of an iteration from the outer loop.
An ending message is sent out in line 12 to show the end of the iteration from the outer loop. From the output, you can see that the inner loop is finished before the outer loop starts another iteration. When the outer loop begins another iteration, the inner loop is encountered and run again. The output from the program in Listing 7. For instance, the following. Note that the expression returns 1 as long as j is less than or equal to The second field contains the expression used as the specified condition s.
A There are three expression fields in the for statement. The first field contains an initializer that is evaluated first and only once before the iteration. The second field keeps the conditional expression that must be tested before the statements controlled by the for statement are executed. If the conditional expression returns a nonzero value, which means the specified condition is met, one iteration of the for loop is carried out.
After each iteration, the expression in the third field is evaluated, and then the expression in the second field is reevaluated. The process that is, looping is repeated until the conditional expression returns 0.
A The main difference is that in the while statement, the conditional expression is evaluated at the top of the loop, while in the do-while statement, the conditional expression is evaluated at the bottom of the loop. Therefore, the statements controlled by the do-while statement are executed at least once. A By definition, the while statement does not end with a semicolon. However, it's legal in C to put a semicolon right after the while statement like this: while expression ;, which means there is a null statement controlled by the while statement.
Remember that the result will be quite different from what you expect if you accidentally put a semicolon at the end of the while statement. Q If two loops are nested together, which one must finish first, the inner loop or the outer loop? A The inner loop must finish first. Then the outer loop will start another iteration if the specified condition is still met. To help you solidify your understanding of this hour's lesson, you are encouraged to try to answer the quiz questions and finish the exercises provided in the Workshop before you move to the next lesson.
Tips, Notes, and Cautions provide additional advice from the authors on how to get up to speed and programming quickly with C. James manages a commercial suite of programs designed to automate contact management, marketing, service and repair, proposal generation, and inventory control and purchasing. James's experience in creating certifie Office-compatible software has made him an authority on application interface and behavior standards of applications for the Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Office environments.
James has personally written more than , lines of commercial production code, both in single programmer and multiple programmer environments.
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